Résumés / Abstracts

Pascale DOLLFUS,

"Phu mkhar rdzong, un lieu de pèlerinage au Ladakh" / " Phu mkhar rdzong, a pilgrimage site in Ladakh "

This paper describes the pilgrimage of Phu mkhar rdzong, a sacred place "opened" by Padmasambhava and still venerated by Buddhists, but situated in Purig (Western Ladakh), a region inhabited mostly by Ladakhi Muslims. The description of the place given in "the new explanation of the holy site" (gnas bshad gso ma), written in 1993 by rTogs Jdan Rin po che, the head of the 'Bri gung pa school in Ladakh who had a long career in Ladakhi politics, is compared with the discourse and behaviour of lay pilgrims. On the basis of this study, the author questions the revitalisation of the pilgrimage and, more generally, the awakening of "national" consciousness among Ladakhi Buddhists along religious / communal lines.

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Charlotte SCHMID,

"Représentations anciennes de Krsna luttant contre le cheval Kesin sur des haltères : l'avatara de Visnu et le dieu du Mahabharata" / " Ancient Representations of Krsna against Kesin on Weight-stones : the Avatara of Visnu and the Divinity of the Mahabharata "

Taking the exemplary case of the earliest iconography of the god Krsna, this paper analyses the relation between images and texts in ancient India. From the first to the third century, Krsna is regularly represented as a four-armed god with characteristic attributes. However on very rare objects, which were probably weight-stones for wrestlers, the god is depicted as a two-armed hero fighting against a horse. According to the legend developed for the first time in the Harivamsa, an "appendix" to the Mahabharata which is usually dated from the third to the fifth century and narrates the whole legend of the child Krsna, this horse was the carnivorous Kesin. In fact, this part of the legend of Krsna appears most frequently in texts as well as in images. Such a struggle would have been known and represented before others because it could be linked to Vedic values in the texts and to the values of wrestling in representations.
From the fourth century on, the new iconography of Krsna as a two-armed child is inspired by the fight against the horse, while the iconography of the god Visnu is inspired by the four-armed images of Krsna. The two ancient forms of Krsna apparently became the representation of two different divinities, Visnu and Krsna, between whom they express the same strong link that connects the Mahabharata and the Harivamsa. On the other hand, some representations are known in which features of both iconographies are used, for example in the fight between Bhima and Bhima - a fight which is watched by the adult form of Krsna, the god of the Mahabharata.
Few representations inspired by the Mahabharata are known before the seventh century. Bhima's fight against Bhima is represented more frequently because it constitutes a transition between the Mahabharata and the Harivamsa. The battle in the Mahabharata echoes the struggle against Kesin in the Harivamsa. This may explain why two iconographies are joined in the representation of Bhima's fight. These images seem to represent the iconographic transition from one age to another ; at the same time they represent the theological transition from one divinity to another. Both transitions correspond with the passage, sometimes difficult, from the Mahabharata to the Harivamsa, in which the conception of Krsna as an avatara of Visnu is quite different from the presentation of Krsna in the Mahabharata.

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John GUY,

"A Boat Model and State Ritual in Eastern India " / " Un modèle de bateau et les rituels d'État dans l'Inde de l'Est "

Une acquisition récente du Victoria and Albert Museum de Londres apporte des éléments inédits à l'histoire de la navigation en Inde. Il s'agit d'un modèle de bateau avec pavillon couvert, sous la forme d'une sculpture en pierre, en ronde-bosse, unique dans l'art indien. Cet article présente ce modèle en le situant dans la chronologie des représentations indiennes de navires et tente d'en déterminer le sens rituel.
Au-delà des descriptions sastriques, qui n'offrent que des classifications trop générales, l'auteur compare ce modèle aux diverses sources iconographiques disponibles. En dépit de l'étalement chronologique de ces diverses sources, qui rend toute comparaison problématique, il en conclut qu'il s'agit d'un bateau de plaisance à usage fluvial, commun au Bengale comme en Orissa.
Il apparaît que le contexte rituel de ce modèle est lié au pouvoir politique et à l'hindouisme (alors même que l'essentiel des sources disponibles sur les activités maritimes de l'Inde relient celles-ci au bouddhisme et au jaïnisme).

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Hubert FORESTIER,

"L'assemblage industriel de Song Keplek, Java Est" / " The industrial assemblage of Song Keplek, East Java: A new look as lithic tools of modern man at the beginning of the Holocene in Indonesia "

This article surveys the available data regarding lithic industries of Insular Southeast Asia and demonstrates their variability. It also proposes a synthesis of results obtained recently in pre-Neolithic strata in the cave of Song Keplek, in the Gunung Kidul, East Java and therefore contributes some new markers in the cultural chronology of Modern Man in Java (the study of Indonesian Homo sapiens sapiens has only recently started producing results). The industrial assemblages unearthed during the Song Keplek excavation were produced by hunter-gatherer occupants of the cave, between 4500 and 6000 years B.P. The analysis of some 15000 blanks allowed us to build up a first typology of their stone tools and to elucidate the technological phases of core reduction. In a typological perspective, these stone tools have a strongly "Mousterian" aspect, with an important number of scrapers, notches, denticulated, naturally backed knives, borers, etc. A technological reading of the assemblage identified partially exploited cortical cores. The manufacturing process is non-Levallois and non-Discoid; it depends highly on an elementary, but organized method of debitage. Though a global reconstruction of the evolution of the stone tools of Modern Man in Indonesia is considered not possible for the moment, the present essay attempts to provide a first typo-technological classification that will help analyse other lithic assemblages from Java and the other islands of Indonesia.

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Bérénice BELLINA,

"La vaisselle dans les échanges entre le sous-continent indien et l'Asie du Sud-Est à l'époque protohistorique" / " Wares in exchanges between the Indian Sub-continent and Southeast Asia in proto-historical times. Notes on some archaeological markers "

Regional and inter-regional trading networks played a fundamental role not only in the process of state formation in both South and Southeast Asia, but also in the transmission and adoption of Indian cultural features in Southeast Asia.
This article discusses a series of wares which help enlighten some aspects of the initiation and evolution of such trading networks. Due to the absence of other reliable sources of information, archaeological items, and more specially wares, constitute an efficient tool to study the formative period of these networks.
Three types of Indian wares may be said to belong to a first period (3rd-2nd century B.C. - 2nd-3rd century A.D.). The short delay between the appearance in Indian contexts of these wares and their import or accurate imitation in non-indianised Southeast Asia is one decisive piece of evidence for the intensive trade between the two regions. During the second period, after the 3rd century A.D., Indian wares and those inspired by Indian models are found in larger amounts, in indianised contexts of Southeast Asia. These give an image of fully expanded networks functioning both within and between South and Southeast Asia.

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Florence YVON-TRAN,

"L'application du système de l'affermage des marchés ruraux au Tonkin de 1888 à 1911" / " The Market Bidding System in Rural Tonkin, 1888-1911 "

In spite of the failure of the market bidding system during its experimental stage (1888-1893), it continued to thrive and was extended to all the provinces of Tonkin from 1898 to 1911. This essay addresses the origins of the system and its consequences on the rural society and economy. Under the colonial administration, the initial beneficiaries of the bidding system were the French residing in Tonkin. But the very success of this group in dominating the system undermined the system as a whole.
The essay examines three features of market administration: tax collection, market repairs, and sanitation regulations in the markets. Originally, these tasks were the responsibility of the local government, but with the expansion of the market system they fell to those who had bid successfully. This shift in administrative power left sufficient space for bidders to operate freely and often in ways that undermined the colonial administration. French official bidders frequently and unofficially transferred use rights of the bid to the Chinese commercial community. The Chinese community, in turn, relied on Vietnamese from other areas and from the more marginal segments of society to collect taxes. This de facto system, as opposed to the more orderly de jure structure, brought about significant changes in the rural society and economy: a rise in taxes, a decline in the circulation of commodities within markets, and the rise or decline of various market places. More generally, this unofficial system brought about significant instability within rural communities in Tonkin.

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Michel LORRILLARD,

"Quelques données relatives à l'historiographie lao" / " Some Data related to Lao Historiography "

The article begins with a general appraisal of the works of the modern Laotian historians (up to 1975) on the past of their country. The particular example of the famous scholar Maha Sila Viravong is taken. His writing of Lao history appears to be a direct continuation of the work of the Laotian historiographers from the 16th century onward.
The ancient chronicles of Laos are characterised by different regional traditions which must be distinguished and correctly identified. However, the object of all of them is to legitimize a reigning dynasty. Several means have been used that are based as much on ancient animist beliefs as on the more recent traditions of the Buddhist religion. Apart from links made with legends on the origins, flagrant examples of history being rewritten can be found in the Laotian chronicles. In certain cases, it seems that awkward events were purposely obscured. In others, the historian certainly responded to a concern for moralisation and idealisation of the facts. The chronicles perfectly reflect the context during which they were written, revealing the strengths and weaknesses of local power. Careful reading of them brings a renewed perception of the Laotian past.

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Volker GRABOWSKY,

" On the History of Müang Sing (Laos) " / "Introduction à l'histoire du Müang Sing"

Cet article résulte des recherches que l'auteur conduit actuellement sur l'histoire du Müang Sing, dans le nord-ouest du Laos. Müang Sing était la capitale de l'ancienne principauté lü de Chiang Khaeng qui possédait des territoires sur les deux rives du Mékong. Le Chiang Khaeng, dont les origines remontent au XVe siècle, était le prototype d'une principauté taï entretenant des relations de vassalité avec plusieurs suzerains à la fois : Chiang Rung (Chine), Chiang Tung (Birmanie) et Nan (Siam). En se fondant sur des sources indigènes ainsi que sur les documents d'archives siamois et européens, l'auteur retrace l'histoire du Chiang Khaeng jusqu'à la fin du XIXe siècle, époque à laquelle la petite principauté fut l'objet de négociations franco-britanniques pour la création d'un état tampon sur le haut Mékong. La chronique abrégée de Cao Mai Nawong sur la fondation de Müang Sing offre un fascinant point de vue indigène sur la rivalité des puissances coloniales, qui se solda par la division du Chiang Khaeng entre le Laos et la Birmanie.

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Khin SOK,

"La khmérisation de l'enseignement et l'indépendance culturelle au Cambodge" / " The Khmerisation of Teaching and Cultural Independance in Cambodia "

During the French colonial period, the French language was imposed on every domain, including administration, justice, and education. According to the directives of the colony's governor, "the objective of giving the Cambodians a basic French education is to enable them, as quickly as possible, to fill the functions of telegraphers and interpreters. It is by gradually excluding the Annamite element, and by involving the Cambodian people in our administrative life as quickly as possible, that we shall succeed in winning the sympathy of a people that defies us because it does not yet know us." F. Martini, a French linguist, observed that the politics of colonization entailed the stagnation of native languages.
After the departure of the French in 1953 and until 1967, in spite of a complete change of orientation in French language education, French remained the dominant medium of instruction. In 1967 the "khmerization" of the educational system was decreed. Khmer teachers were substituted for French teachers and schoolbooks in Khmer were written. From 1967 to 1974, with the support of various political and cultural movements, the Pali and Khmer linguistic groups jointly led Cambodia towards linguistic independence.

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Anne-Valérie SCHWEYER,

"Chronologie des inscriptions publiées du Campa" / " Chronology of published inscriptions of Campa "

This article proposes a chronological classification of all published inscriptions of ancient Campa, with a bibliography. The reading of the entire body of inscriptions permits the compilation of the most signifiant items of information mentioned: the names of kings, queens, or dignitaries, and the names of gods and temples.

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Anne-Valérie SCHWEYER,

"La vaisselle en argent de la dynastie d'Indrapura (Quang Nam, Viêt Nam)" / " The silver vessels of the dynasty of Indrapura (Quang Nam, Vietnam) "

The private collection of Mr. Vu Kim Lôc in Ho Chi Minh-City contains three pieces of silverware engraved with inscriptions from the province of Quang Nam in Central Vietnam. The Sanskrit inscriptions are published in the present article. The pieces derive from the dynasty of Indrapura which, from its base at the site of modern Dông Duong, reigned supreme in Campä from the late ninth to the late tenth century.

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Claude JACQUES,

"Les inscriptions du Phnom Kbal Span (K 1011, 1012, 1015 et 1016)" / " The inscriptions of Phnom Kbal Span "

Phnom Kbal Span is the name of a hill near Phnom Kulen, to the east of Angkor. The sandstone bed of the river which flows from its top has been carved in lingas and other bas reliefs for some 200 metres, in the same manner as can also be seen on the Siem Reap river bed, on the Phnom Kulen. But in this site there are many Sanskrit and Khmer inscriptions cut on the rocks around, unfortunately not always in good condition. Nevertheless, many can be deciphered. The main subject addressed by the hermits living there was praise of the gods. However one of them says he was the sculptor of a "thousand lingas" and was formerly a "mandarin" of Suryavarman I. The place was also visited by King Udayadityavarman II; incidentally, we are told that this king was the son of Suryavarman I - which is not recorded elsewhere -, and of the principal queen Viralaksmi.

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Frédéric GIRARD,

"Remarques sur le fragment de Cambridge du Journal des rêves de Myoe (1173-1232)" / " Some Remarks on the Harvard Fragment of the Dreams Record of Myoe (1173-1232) "

In the present paper, I analyse a fragment of the Dream Diary of Myoe (1173-1232), conserved at the Harvard University Art Museum in Cambridge, Mass. This fragment seems to be a better, that is earlier, version of the Dream Diary than the one that has been conserved in Kozanji monastery, and that has already been published. Here we present a new translation and analysis of it. I refer to the hypothesis concerning the identification of the personnage of Ko no sanmi no tsubone, who seems to be alluded to in this fragment, and who is a great patron of Myoe and Kozanji. This identification is not only interesting from the historical point of view, but also provides new perspectives on the relationship between Myoe, traditionally considered as representative of ancient Buddhism, and Dogen, who is thought to be representative of the so-called new Buddhism of this period : in fact, both communities seem to have had the same patron. The discovery of historical details permits us to reconsider pertinent paradigms and categories to define and analyse medieval Buddhism as japanised Buddhism.

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